# Gaussian Processes

Definition. A Gaussian process is random function $f : X \to \R$ such that for any $x_1,..,x_n$, the vector $f(x_1),..,f(x_n)$ is multivariate Gaussian.

Every GP is characterized by a mean $\mu(\.)$ and a kernel $k(\.,\.)$. We have $$\htmlClass{fragment}{ f(\v{x}) \~ \f{N}(\v{\mu}_{\v{x}},\m{K}_{\v{x}\v{x}}) }$$ where $\v\mu_{\v{x}} = \mu(\v{x})$ and $\m{K}_{\v{x}\v{x}'} = k(\v{x},\v{x}')$.

Bayesian learning: $f \given \v{y}$.

# Bayesian Optimization

Goal: minimize unknown function $\phi$ in as few evaluations as possible.

1. Build GP posterior $f \given \v{y}$ using data $(x_1,\phi(x_1)),..,(x_n,\phi(x_n))$.
2. Choose $$\htmlClass{fragment}{ x_{n+1} = \argmax_{x\in\c{X}} \alpha_{f\given\v{y}}(x) }$$ to maximize the acquisition function $\alpha_{f\given\v{y}}$, for instance expected improvement $\alpha_{f\given\v{y}} = \E_{f\given\v{y}} \max(0, {\displaystyle\min_{i=1,..,n}} \phi(x_n) - f(x))$.

# Modeling Dynamical Systems with Uncertainty

$$\htmlData{fragment-index=0,class=fragment}{ x_0 } \qquad \htmlData{fragment-index=1,class=fragment}{ x_1 = x_0 + f(x_0)\Delta t } \qquad \htmlData{fragment-index=2,class=fragment}{ x_2 = x_1 + f(x_1)\Delta t } \qquad \htmlData{fragment-index=3,class=fragment}{ .. }$$

# Matérn Gaussian Processes

$$\htmlData{class=fragment fade-out,fragment-index=9}{ \footnotesize \mathclap{ k_\nu(x,x') = \sigma^2 \frac{2^{1-\nu}}{\Gamma(\nu)} \del{\sqrt{2\nu} \frac{\norm{x-x'}}{\kappa}}^\nu K_\nu \del{\sqrt{2\nu} \frac{\norm{x-x'}}{\kappa}} } } \htmlData{class=fragment d-print-none,fragment-index=9}{ \footnotesize \mathclap{ k_\infty(x,x') = \sigma^2 \exp\del{-\frac{\norm{x-x'}^2}{2\kappa^2}} } }$$ $\sigma^2$: variance $\kappa$: length scale $\nu$: smoothness
$\nu\to\infty$: recovers squared exponential kernel

$\nu = 1/2$

$\nu = 3/2$

$\nu = 5/2$

$\nu = \infty$

# Geodesics

$$k_\infty^{(d_g)}(x,x') = \sigma^2\exp\del{-\frac{d_g(x,x')^2}{2\kappa^2}}$$

Theorem. (Feragen et al.) Let $M$ be a complete Riemannian manifold without boundary. If $k_\infty^{(d_g)}$ is positive semi-definite for all $\kappa$, then $M$ is isometric to a Euclidean space.

# Stochastic Partial Differential Equations

$$\htmlData{class=fragment,fragment-index=0}{ \underset{\t{Matérn}}{\undergroup{\del{\frac{2\nu}{\kappa^2} - \Delta}^{\frac{\nu}{2}+\frac{d}{4}} f = \c{W}}} } \qquad \htmlData{class=fragment,fragment-index=1}{ \underset{\t{squared exponential}}{\undergroup{\vphantom{\del{\frac{2\nu}{\kappa^2} - \Delta}^{\frac{\nu}{2}+\frac{d}{4}}} e^{-\frac{\kappa^2}{4}\Delta} f = \c{W}}} }$$ $\Delta$: Laplacian $\c{W}$: (rescaled) white noise

# Riemannian Matérn Kernels: compact spaces

$$k_\nu(x,x') = \frac{\sigma^2}{C_\nu} \sum_{n=0}^\infty \del{\frac{2\nu}{\kappa^2} - \lambda_n}^{-\nu-\frac{d}{2}} f_n(x) f_n(x')$$

# Thank you!

V. Borovitskiy, I. Azangulov, A. Terenin, P. Mostowsky, M. P. Deisenroth. Matérn Gaussian Processes on Graphs. Artificial Intelligence and Statistics, 2021.

V. Borovitskiy, A. Terenin, P. Mostowsky, M. P. Deisenroth. Matérn Gaussian Processes on Riemannian Manifolds. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2020.